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</o:shapelayout></xml><![endif]--> </head> <body lang=EN-US link=blue vlink=purple style='tab-interval:.5in'> <div class=WordSection1> <h1 style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>I.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt'>Geological Evidence for the Flood<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>By Jon Covey, BA, CLS(ASCP)<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Edited by Anita Millen, MD, MPH, MA<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Dr. Andrew Snelling wrote a terrific six-part series on geological evidence for the Flood, which was published in <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Answers Magazine</i> during 2008-09 If you aren t getting this publication, you are missing out on a very informative and entertaining full-color creationist magazine for the entire family. Visit www.answersingenesis.org or call (800)778-3390 to order a subscription.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In Part One of this series,  Geological Evidences for the Flood, Dr. Snelling gives an overview of six geological evidences for the Genesis Flood:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n1/high-dry-sea-creatures"><span style='color:windowtext;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Evidence #1 Fossils of sea creatures high above sea level due to flooding of ocean waters over the continents.</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Tremendous fossil graveyards containing billions of well-preserved organisms are found all over the world. Marine organisms constitute the preponderance of fossils found on land, both in Grand Canyon and high in the Himalayas. In this month s video, <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>The Flood</i>, Snelling asks how the marine remains got up on the land. Uniformitarian geologists propose that the continents were covered by the oceans many times. That means the continents would have had to sink repeatedly into the mantle while the ocean crusts simultaneously rose relative to the continents.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Would that explain the vast graveyards of marine fossils on the land? Marine fossils in the oceans are relatively scarce compared to the large numbers found on land. Little fossilization is taking place in the oceans nothing remotely comparable to the humongous marine fossil graveyards found on land. Of course, ocean sediments are less because of sea floor spreading and subduction. According to Snelling, the original sea floors rapidly subducted beneath the continents during the Flood.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>About 40% of the world s sedimentary rocks consist of fine-grained graded turbidites, and the rest are mainly limestones, shales, and conglomerates containing coarse sand, breccia, cobbles, and gigantic boulders. Inland seas and oceans cannot form widespread conglomerates like the Shinarump, which covers over 100,000 square miles, because only fast moving water can carry the rocks and breccia contained within the conglomerates over hundreds of miles.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Uniformitarian geologists try to explain that rivers and streams deposited the widespread conglomerates such as the Shinarump. For instance, The Mohave Community College has a geology section on its web page. They say that high energy streams deposited the Shinarump, which consists of coarse sandstone mixed with poorly sorted boulders. One must suspend critical thinking to believe that rivers could deposit a conglomerate of the Shinarump s dimensions over such a vast area.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>How a fast moving stream could distribute the boulders, coarse sand, and tree trunks contained in the conglomerate matrix in an area over 100,000 square miles to a relatively uniform thickness (generally 25 to 75 feet, depending on the flatness of the underlying sediment) goes beyond reason. These characteristics can be better explained as the result of a titanic catastrophe that rapidly deposited the Shinarump, the Chinle (about 125,000 sq mi.), and other widespread formations associated with them.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Widespread cyclothems consisting of coal seams interleaved with shales and other sedimentary layers in a cyclic fashion represent another conundrum for uniformitarians. See our article on cyclothems for a detailed explanation in our  past articles section online.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n2/world-graveyard"><span style='color:black;mso-bidi-font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none'>Evidence #2 Rapid burial of plants and animals.</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling asks,  If the Genesis Flood really occurred, what evidence would we look for? We would expect to find billions of fossilized plants and animals buried and in sand, mud, and lime that were deposited rapidly by water in rock layers all over the earth. That s the first line of evidence. Remember how Ken Ham put it?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Billions of dead things buried in rock layers, laid down by water all over the earth. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>The Genesis Flood</i>, Henry Morris carefully documented evidence that billions of fish caught in the same conflagration were rapidly buried and that the time interval was so short that essentially no scavenging or decay occurred prior to burial. There are sedimentary rocks that reflect this kind of rapid burial all over the world, yet as Snelling reported in his video, <i style='mso-bidi-font-style: normal'>The Flood</i>, very little fossilization is taking place in the oceans. I suppose he would say this is apart from modern turbidity currents sweeping across hundreds of square miles of oceanic floor that bury whatever gets in their way. The same would be true for submarine landslides along the coasts. Last month s video, <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Darwin s Dilemma </i>showed how such a landslide buried the creatures of the Burgess Shale.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Although turbidity currents and submarine landslides cause rapid burial, their scale is dwarfed by the enormous sediments traced by Derek Ager and his colleagues across multiple continents from England to Australia, to the plains of Texas. See our  past articles section for information on turbidites and turbidity currents.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n3/transcontinental-rock-layers"><span style='color:black;mso-bidi-font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none'>Evidence #3 Rapidly deposited sediment layers spread across vast areas.</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling enlarged what I said above:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> We find rock layers that can be traced all the way across continents even between continents and physical features in those strata indicate they were deposited rapidly. For example, the Tapeats Sandstone and Redwall Limestone of Grand Canyon can be traced across the entire United States, up into Canada, and even across the Atlantic Ocean to England. The chalk beds of England (the white cliffs of Dover) can be traced across Europe into the Middle East and are also found in the Midwestern United States and in Western Australia. Inclined (sloping) layers within the Coconino Sandstone of Grand Canyon are testimony to 10,000 cubic miles of sand being deposited by huge water currents within days. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n4/sand-transported"><span style='color:black;mso-bidi-font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;text-underline: none'>Evidence #4 Sediment transported long distances.</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>We already briefly mentioned the deposition of cyclothems over the eastern half of the United States, sometimes all the way from the coastal areas to the middle of Kansas, and the great lateral extent of many conglomerates. Snelling provides revealing discussion about some well-known formations.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> We find that the sediments in those widespread, rapidly deposited rock layers had to be eroded from distant sources and carried long distances by fast-moving water. For example, the sand for the Coconino Sandstone of Grand Canyon (Arizona) had to be eroded and transported from the northern portion of what is now the United States and Canada. Furthermore, water current indicators (such as ripple marks) preserved in rock layers show that for  300 million years water currents were consistently flowing from northeast to southwest across all of North and South America, which, of course, is only possible over weeks during a global flood. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:12.25pt;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom: 2.55pt;margin-left:0in;line-height:95%;mso-outline-level:3'><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;line-height:95%;font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";color:black'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v4/n1/no-slow-erosion"><b><span style='color:black;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Evidence #5 Rapid or no erosion between strata.</span></b></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Anita and I have travelled across great stretches of open territory between Los Angeles and Denver many times. We noticed the often flat-lying sedimentary rocks along Interstate 70 north of Arches National Park and elsewhere in the desert regions, which we now know as the Book Cliffs, which is a geological structure known as an escarpment. Tectonic forces tilted and pushed this area up. We see dozens of layers stacked on top of each other. We were impressed with the unbroken continuity of each layer for about 90 miles with essentially no signs of ancient erosion within the strata. I m sure many of you have noticed the same thing. What makes this more interesting is the rampant erosion throughout those roadside formations that has occurred since their deposition.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Viewed from satellite photos on Google maps, the erosion is stunning. Zoom down in Utah along I-70 for a spectacular view of heavy erosion in the stretch leading into Colorado from about where Highways 6 and 191 join I-70 in Utah. How could layers of sediment supposedly laid down over many thousands to millions of years experience little erosion during that time, while modern erosion since their deposition has sliced through those sediments like a hot knife through butter? Also, how could slow moving ocean waters bury enormous schools of fish fast enough in widespread areas to prevent scavengers or decay from ravaging their bodies? Dr. Snelling comments:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> We find evidence of rapid erosion, or even of no erosion, between rock layers. Flat, knife-edge boundaries between rock layers indicate continuous deposition of one layer after another, with no time for erosion. For example, there is no evidence of any  missing millions of years (of erosion) in the flat boundary between two well-known layers of Grand Canyon the Coconino Sandstone and the Hermit Formation. Another impressive example of flat boundaries at Grand Canyon is the Redwall Limestone and the strata beneath it. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v4/n2/folded-not-fractured"><span style='color:windowtext;mso-bidi-font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none; text-underline:none'>Evidence #6 Many strata laid down in rapid succession.</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling concludes his overview with these remarks:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Rocks do not normally bend; they break because they are hard and brittle. But in many places we find whole sequences of strata that were bent without fracturing, indicating that all the rock layers were rapidly deposited and folded while still wet and pliable before final hardening. For example, the Tapeats Sandstone in Grand Canyon is folded at a right angle (90°) without evidence of breaking. Yet this folding could only have occurred after the rest of the layers had been deposited, supposedly over  480 million years, while the Tapeats Sandstone remained wet and pliable. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h1 style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>II.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt'>Evidence of Noah s Flood  Rapid Burial of Plants and Animals<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent style='text-indent:0in'><span style='font-size: 14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>This section is about rapid burial of plants and animals.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>After saying that fossils of sea creatures have been found high above sea level, Snelling writes,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Countless billions of plant and animal fossils are found in extensive  graveyards where they had to be buried rapidly on a massive scale. Often the fine details of the creatures are exquisitely preserved. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Drs. Duane Gish and Henry Morris wrote of this feature in the fossil record in many of their books and articles, but Snelling reminds us of it for important reasons. One reason is Genesis 7:19 says,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span lang=EN style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-ansi-language:EN'> The water prevailed more and more upon the earth, so that all the high mountains every­where under the heavens were covered. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>This is what God, who was the eye witness of what happened, revealed to Moses. Atheists would never accept this eyewitness account, and we understand that, however long before people began earnestly searching for fossils, God revealed that all the high mountains were covered by His Flood. He also inspired the psalmist to write that  the mountains rose and the valleys sank down, although the psalmist probably knew nothing about tectonics. These events took place to re-establish tectonic equilibrium after the tectonic upheaval of the continents during the Flood.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Marine and land fossils buried together<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In many places around the world, over a mile of thick sediments was deposited on the continents, resulting in marine fossils high in the Alps, Rockies, Himalayas, and other mountain ranges. Grand Canyon s Redwall Limestone is at an altitude of about 5500 feet, much higher than sea level. Snelling says,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> For example, billions of straight-shelled, chambered nautiloids are found fossilized with other marine creatures in a 7 foot (2 m) thick layer within the Redwall Limestone of Grand Canyon. This fossil graveyard stretches for 180 miles (290 km) across northern Arizona and into southern Nevada, covering an area of at least 10,500 square miles (30,000 km<sup>2</sup>). These squid-like fossils are all different sizes, from small, young nautiloids to their bigger, older relatives.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> To form such a vast fossil graveyard required 24 cubic miles (100 km<sup>3</sup>) of lime sand and silt, flowing in a thick, soup-like slurry at more than 16 feet (5 m) per second (more than 11 mph [18 km/h]) to catastrophically overwhelm and bury this huge, living population of nautiloids. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNoSpacing><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>What I found interesting is that he said amphibians, spiders, scorpions, millipedes, various insects, and reptiles were buried with hundreds of thousands of marine creatures in a fossil graveyard at Montceau-les-Mines, France. Finding land creatures buried with sea organisms is significant. The Flood didn't discreetly bury marine creatures with only marine creatures, nor did it bury land organisms only with land organisms. You would expect to find a mix of land and marine organisms, at least some of the time, if there had been a worldwide flood.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> More than 100,000 fossil specimens, representing more than 400 species, have been recovered from a shale layer associated with coal beds in the Mazon Creek area near Chicago. This spectacular fossil graveyard includes ferns, insects, scorpions, and tetrapods buried with jellyfish, mollusks, crustaceans, and fish, often with soft parts exquisitely preserved. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling reports similar mixed graveyards at Florissant, Colorado. In the Green River Formation, one can find alligators, sunfish, deep sea bass, chubs, pickerel, herring, and garpike buried together with birds, turtles, mammals, mollusks, crustaceans, many varieties of insects, and palm leaves.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling asks,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Notice in many of these examples how marine and land-dwelling creatures are found buried together. How could this have happened unless the ocean waters rose and swept over the continents in a global, catastrophic Flood? <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>It might strengthen your faith to know that these extensive mixed fossil graveyards exist. Too often we get the impression that earth s vast fossil beds consist exclusively of marine organisms or land creatures without any mixing of the two. If there were no mixed flora and fauna fossil graveyards, it would be difficult to explain such segregation in a worldwide flood. Similar mixing is seen in widespread coal beds.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Dr. Snelling cites other extensive fossil graveyards in Australia, Europe, the Middle East, and the Midwestern United States. He reports that there are 7 trillion tons of vegetation buried in coal beds throughout the world, including Antarctica.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>He concludes by saying,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> These are but a few examples of the many hundreds of fossil graveyards found all over the globe that are now well-documented in the geological literature. The countless billions and billions of fossils in these graveyards, in many cases exquisitely preserved, testify to the rapid burial of once-living plants and animals on a global scale in a watery cataclysm and its immediate aftermath. Often these fossil graveyards consist of mixtures of marine and land-dwelling creatures, indicating that the waters of this global cataclysm swept over both the oceans and the continents. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling s article and its references can be found at www.answersingenesis.org. I stopped putting references at the end of our essays because they sometimes take up too much room for our small newsletter. As we add these articles to our website, references will be included because space is not at a premium there.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h1 style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>I.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt'>Evidence of Noah s Flood Transcontinental Rock Layers<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In the first two lines of evidence in Andrew Snelling s six-part series on the geological evidence for the Genesis Flood.<b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><o:p></o:p></b></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>First</span></b><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>, we saw that geologists and paleontologists find myriads of sea creature fossils on most of the high mountains. Even Grand Canyon fossils are high above sea level. Geologists suppose that the ocean has covered the continents at various times and in diverse places. These same geologists believe in the principle of uniformitarianism:  The present is the key to the past. If that is true, then how should they interpret the fossil record? There are more fossils of marine origin on land than fossils belonging to land-based organisms.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>At the present time no marine fossils are forming in sedimentary deposits on the continents. Also, there is no appreciable encroachment of ocean waters on the continents. If the present is the key to the past, as grad­ualism supposes, then we should see marine organisms constantly getting buried all across the continents at a slow, steady rate. This is not happening.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>We should also see the oceans spreading across the surface of the continents at a slow, gentle pace. Indeed, the continents should be partially submerged and this is not the case. Why is it that only in the distant past the oceans overran the continents if the present is the key to the past? We have evidence of sea levels rising and falling over the last few millennia, just as we do of climate change, but rising and lowering sea levels is not the same as the inundation of large sections of the continents depicted in geology textbooks.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>What would be the mechanism for submersion of the continents and burial of marine organisms on them? If we appeal to such things as seafloor spreading and plate tectonics, we should be seeing ocean waters flooding the continents today, albeit at a slow and gradual pace. This isn t happening, the reason is that oceanic crust is denser than continental crust and thus oceanic crust is sliding under the continental crust, a process geologists call subduction. How is oceanic water going to get up on the land if the ocean crust remains lower than the continental crust?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Second</span></b><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>, from time to time we should see sudden rapid burial of marine organisms numbering in the billions because this is the way it is in the fossil record widespread fossil graveyards around the world show signs of essentially instantaneous entombment of enormous schools of fish, some numbering in the millions. This is not happening today on land or in the oceans. Such burials do not happen by a slow gradual process. Again, the present is not the key to the past.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>This brings us to Snelling s third line of evidence.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Rapidly deposited sediment layers spread across vast areas<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling wrote,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> <span style='color:black'>We find rock layers that can be traced all the way across continents even between continents and physical features in those strata indicate they were deposited rapidly. For example, the Tapeats Sandstone and Redwall Limestone of Grand Canyon can be traced across the entire United States, up into Canada, and even across the Atlantic Ocean to England. The chalk beds of England (the white cliffs of Dover) can be traced across Europe into the Middle East and are also found in the Midwest of the United States and in Western Australia. Inclined (sloping) layers within the Coconino Sandstone of Grand Canyon are testimony to 10,000 cubic miles of sand being deposited by huge water currents within days. </span><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In our essay,  Catastrophes Rule Geology, we began to explore the evidence for widespread catastrophes such as the Lake Missoula outburst. The ice dam holding back the lake s 524 cubic miles of water failed, releasing up to 14.4 cubic miles per hour (60 cubic kilometers) at the peak flow rate, with the flood waters reaching speeds of 80 miles per hour. The flow rate is estimated to be <i style='mso-bidi-font-style: normal'>ten</i> <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>times</i> that of all rivers combined. That catastrophe created the Channeled Scablands of Eastern Washington. We also considered meteorites producing planet-wide damage and wiping out most life. Modern paleontologists recount at least five mass extinction events resulting from major catastrophes and many lesser calamities.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Trevor Palmer, author of <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Controversy Catastrophism and Evolution: the Ongoing Debate</i>, says collisions with asteroids or large meteors and cometary fragments produced at least 150 widespread catastrophic events, most in the last 200 Myr in the uniformitarian timeframe. Such tremendous events aren t going on today, and haven t happened since at least the beginning of the Flood. Huge craters 80-100 km in diameter at Manicouagan, Canada; Puchezh-Karunki; Siberia, and Popigai, Siberia; and the familiar 180 km crater at Chicxulub, Yucatan are testimony to the geologic upheaval caused by these collisions. Go to <a href="http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/index.html">http://www.unb.ca/passc/ImpactDatabase/index.html</a>, the Earth Impact Database, for an informative listing of many large craters throughout the world. The largest is Vredefort in South Africa, about 300 km in diameter.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Of course, far more impacts occurred in the oceans, but ocean floor spreading and subduction has probably removed many of the scars. The scarred surface of the moon, especially of the dark side, indicates how often Earth has been hit.</span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Major features of the geological record are not the result of uniformitarian processes. The present is not the key to the past. Uniformitarianism is invalid.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Chalk Beds Stretch across the Globe<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoNormal style='page-break-after:avoid'><span style='font-family: "Arial","sans-serif";mso-no-proof:yes'><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t75" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="75" o:preferrelative="t" path="m@4@5l@4@11@9@11@9@5xe" filled="f" stroked="f"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:formulas> <v:f eqn="if lineDrawn pixelLineWidth 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 1 0"/> <v:f eqn="sum 0 0 @1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @2 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="prod @3 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @0 0 1"/> <v:f eqn="prod @6 1 2"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelWidth"/> <v:f eqn="sum @8 21600 0"/> <v:f eqn="prod @7 21600 pixelHeight"/> <v:f eqn="sum @10 21600 0"/> </v:formulas> <v:path o:extrusionok="f" gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" aspectratio="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_2" o:spid="_x0000_i1027" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Chalk beds of southern England" style='width:250.5pt;height:165.75pt; visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square' o:bordertopcolor="black" o:borderleftcolor="black" o:borderbottomcolor="black" o:borderrightcolor="black"> <v:fill o:detectmouseclick="t"/> <v:imagedata src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image001.jpg" o:title="Chalk beds of southern England" blacklevel="-6554f"/> <w:bordertop type="single" width="4"/> <w:borderleft type="single" width="4"/> <w:borderbottom type="single" width="4"/> <w:borderright type="single" width="4"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><a href="Evidence%20number%203_files"> <img border=0 width=336 height=223 src="clip_image002.jpg" alt="Chalk beds of southern England" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_2"></a><![endif]></span><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoCaption><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Figure</span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> <span style='mso-element: field-separator'></span></span><![endif]--><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><span style='mso-no-proof:yes'>1</span></span><!--[if supportFields]><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><span style='mso-element:field-end'></span></span><![endif]--><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>. The chalk beds of southern England (above)</span> <span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>can be traced across</span></p> <p class=MsoCaption><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>France, Germany, and Poland,</span> <span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>all the way to the Middle East.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Derek Ager noted chalk deposits laid down over most of the continents, indicating they are the result of a single catastrophic event. Concerning these widespread deposits, Snelling says, <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The Cretaceous chalk beds of southern England are well known because they appear as spectacular white cliffs along the coast (<b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>Figure</b> <b style='mso-bidi-font-weight:normal'>1</b>). These chalk beds can be traced westward across England and appear again in Northern Ireland. In the opposite direction, these same chalk beds can be traced across France, the Netherlands, Germany, Poland, southern Scandinavia, and other parts of Europe to Turkey, then to Israel and Egypt in the Middle East, and even as far as Kazakhstan. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Remarkably, the same chalk beds with the same fossils and the same distinctive strata above and below them are also found in the Midwest USA, from Nebraska in the north to Texas in the south. They also appear in the Perth Basin of Western Australia& . <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>This might seem impossible, but we must remember that before and during the Flood, there was one vast supercontinent. This helps explain how these deposits could end up on so many different continents now separated by vast oceans.<o:p> In Genesis 1:9 it says, </o:p></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span class="style1"> <span style="mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;">&quot;</span><span lang="EN" style="mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language:EN">Then God said,  Let the waters below the heavens be gathered into one place, and let the dry land appear ; and it was so.&quot; God created a single land mass.</span></span></p> <p class="MsoNormal"><span class="style1"> <span lang="EN" style="mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;mso-bidi-font-family:&quot;Times New Roman&quot;; mso-ansi-language:EN">This was recorded long before anyone knew that all of the continents originally comprised one land mass, demonstrating the veracity and accuracy of the Bible.</span></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Layers of Coal Traceable across Continents<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Almost 20 years ago (Jan to May 1992), we examined the development of cyclothems in a 5-part series inspired by John Woodmorappe s report in the <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Creation Research Society Quarterly </i>(1978). <span style='background:white'>A cyclothem is made up of many randomly repeating thin layers of different sedimentary rock types such as shale, limestone, sandstone, siltstone, and randomly interspersed layers of coal. Woodmorappe noted that these cyclothems extend from the Appalachians to Kansas. It is remarkable that thin layers of these cyclothems, including the coal, can be traced from the Appalachians to Kansas. What slow, gradual process currently distributes plant material over such a wide area?<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";background:white'>Geologists find coal beds throughout the world, and their far-ranging lateral extent denies that uniformitarian processes were responsible for their creation. Snelling writes:</span><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Consider another feature coal beds. In the northern hemisphere, the Upper Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) coal beds of the eastern and Midwest USA are the same coal beds, with the same plant fossils, as those in Britain and Europe. They stretch halfway around the globe, from Texas to the Donetz Basin north of the Caspian Sea in the former USSR. In the southern hemisphere, the same Permian coal beds are found in Australia, Antarctica, India, South Africa, and even South America! <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Far-ranging Sandstone Deposits<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> & The buff-colored Coconino Sandstone is very distinctive in the walls of Grand Canyon. It has an average thickness of 315 feet (96 m) and covers an area of at least 200,000 square miles (518,000 km<sup>2</sup>) eastward across adjoining states.<a name="fnMark_1_4_1"></a><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n3/transcontinental-rock-layers#fnList_1_4"><span style='mso-bookmark:fnMark_1_4_1'><sup><span style='color:#5086D4;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>4</span></sup></span><span style='mso-bookmark:fnMark_1_4_1'></span></a><span style='mso-bookmark:fnMark_1_4_1'></span> So the volume of sand in the Coconino Sandstone layer is at least 10,000 cubic miles (41,682 km<sup>3</sup>).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> This layer also contains physical features called cross beds. While the overall layer of sandstone is horizontal, these cross beds are clearly visible as sloped beds. These beds are remnants of the sand waves produced by the water currents that deposited the sand (like sand dunes, but underwater). So it can be demonstrated that water, flowing at 3 5 miles per hour (4.8 8 km/h), deposited the Coconino Sandstone as massive sheets of sand, with sand waves up to 60 feet (18 m) high. At this rate, the whole Coconino Sandstone layer (all 10,000 cubic miles of sand) would have been deposited in just a few days! <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>All these various types of catastrophic events, and other types we haven t mentioned, argue against uni­formitarianism, which was designed to discredit Flood geology of the 17<sup>th</sup> and 18<sup>th</sup> centuries. Since the discovery of undeniable catastrophic events such as continental inundation, asteroid bombardment, sudden mass extinctions, enormous fossil graveyards, and the like, why should anyone ever believe, or even harbor the idea, that the present is the key to the past? Earth shattering events and processes happened in the past that are not happening today. Uniformitarianism originally denied widespread catastrophes of the past. It was simply a sly attempt to discredit a flood of Biblical proportions.</span></p> <h1 style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>II.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt'>Evidence of Noah s Flood Sediment Transported Long Distances<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Andrew Snelling s six-part series on the main geologic evidences for the Genesis Flood is online at www.AnswersMagazine.com.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In addition to the evidence we have seen in the first three parts,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level1 lfo4'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>1.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Fossils of sea creatures high above sea level<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level1 lfo4'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>2.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Rapid burial of plants and animals<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level1 lfo4'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>3.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Rapidly deposited sediment across vast areas<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Now we can add <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoListParagraph style='text-indent:-.25in;mso-list:l2 level1 lfo4'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>4.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Sediment transported long distances.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>As neo-catastrophism and plate tectonics gained momentum in the 1980s, they began to change the interpretation of many geological features. Uniformitarians such as Donald Baars in <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>The Colorado Plateau: A Geologic History</i> (1983) wrote,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Modern sites of deposition are studied to learn what process produces what sedimentary features, and then the ideas so developed are used to interpret the rocks. This process is based on the &quot;doctrine of uniformitarianism,&quot; which states simply,  The present is the key to the past.  <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Some geologists resist the neo-catastrophists position possibly because in their minds it s tantamount to believing in the Genesis Flood. If a large meteorite (&gt;20 km, ~16 miles in diameter) struck the ocean, it would generate a gigantic wave. Napier suggested a wave as high as 8 km would be generated.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";color:black;letter-spacing:-.3pt'> Ocean impacts, causing waves up to 8 km amplitude, will generally be more common than land impacts, and through </span><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";color:black;letter-spacing:-.25pt'>simultaneous flooding of the land and obscuration of the upper </span><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"; color:black'>atmosphere are likely to be an extremely efficient cause of <span style='letter-spacing:-.35pt'>sudden ice ages. An impact in the Palaeozoic Pacific at the close </span><span style='letter-spacing:-.4pt'>of the Frasnian explains all the major aspects of an event which </span><span style='letter-spacing: -.25pt'>included the sudden extinction of shallow sea life.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";color:black;letter-spacing:-.15pt'> Impacts of the sort expected at ~50 Myr intervals therefore </span><span style='font-size: 14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";color:black; letter-spacing:-.2pt'>produce an abundance of deleterious effects, the consequences </span><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";color:black;letter-spacing:-.35pt'>of which are catastrophic extinctions. </span><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 10.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";color:black;letter-spacing:-.25pt'> <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Nature</i> 282:458<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>A wave of 8 km amplitude would be 4.97 miles in American measurement. How often has the human race seen waves five miles high? Without much research, we know no one in historic times has seen such a wave, because it would have wiped out civilization.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Over the last few weeks, I had an interesting exchange with an amateur geologist, Greg Rutz, who believed in catastrophism, or so he said. He had conflicting beliefs and disagreeable language. He didn t think a catastrophe could produce a widespread megasequence such as the Red Wall Limestone that geologists, such as Derek Ager and his peers, traced across several continents. He was still clinging to uniformitarian principles, insisting that the present is the key to the past, although I pointed out that none of the catastrophes Ager referred to have been witnessed in history otherwise we wouldn t exist. The present is not the key to the past concerning the catastrophes. He didn t believe the Flood could have produced any major sediment. I think he envisioned the Flood as a bathtub flood: the water would rise slowly over the 40 days of rain, He scoffed at the idea of the fountains of the great deep.  What s the evidence? He represents the mentality that won t accept <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>any</i> evidence for the Flood.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Why the sediment was transported long distances.<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Snelling explains that because the Flood waters swept over the continents and rapidly deposited sediment layers across vast areas, the sediments had to have been transported long distances. Marine sediments came from the oceans to the middle of the continents, for example.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Geologists, such as Donald Baars, believe the oceans intruded across various parts of the continents. Mantle super plumes may have pushed up the ocean crust, causing the water to overflow the continents. Baars described the encroachment of the sea as gradual, depositing sediments along the shoreline. He describes this process in the Grand Canyon area:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The Toroweap Formation is divided into three members at most localities within Grand Canyon. The lower member is a thin red and yellow sandstone that was probably deposited on the shoreline from sands of the Coconino over which the sea was advancing. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Geologists generally believe the Coconino Formation was part of a dry, terrestrial environment. Baars seems to believe that the sea transgressed (and, presumably later regressed as the ocean basin sank to its normal depth) over a flat-lying Coconino in such a way that the sediments dropped at the encroaching shoreline and built the Toroweap Formation as well as the over-lying Kaibab Formation (also marine) inch by inch across the Coconino plain. Then as the shoreline continued to advance, the Toroweap continued to thicken to 250 feet, and the Kaibab up to 500 feet over a 20 million year interval. Most of us live in the South Bay s beach cities. Based on uniformitarian thinking, we would have to believe our beaches represent the potential leading edge of advancing seas. If mantle plumes or plate tectonics caused a rise in the sea level, we could imagine how water would inundate the coastal areas, but at some point we d wonder where all the sand and silt to deposit widespread, flat-lying layers of sediment might come from. How would they get here? Creationist geologists have a better explanation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>To help us understand transport of sediment from their sources, Snelling said,<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> & we discussed the Coconino Sandstone, seen spectacularly in the walls of the Grand Canyon (see his figure below). It has an average thickness of 315 feet (96 m), covers an area of at least 200,000 square miles (518,000 km<sup>2</sup>), and thus contains at least 10,000 cubic miles (41,700 km<sup>3</sup>) of sand. Where did this sand come from, and how do we know?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The sand grains are pure quartz (a natural glass mineral), which is why the Coconino Sandstone is such a distinctive buff color. Directly underneath it is the strikingly different red-brown Hermit Formation, consisting of siltstone and shale. Sand for the Coconino Sandstone could not have come from the underlying Hermit Formation.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=Blockquote0 style='margin-top:0in'><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1041" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:88.5pt; margin-top:59.2pt;width:156pt;height:42.35pt;z-index:8' coordsize="3120,847" path="m,400c775,623,1550,847,2070,780,2590,713,2855,356,3120,e" filled="f"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"/> <v:path arrowok="t"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout;position: absolute;z-index:8;left:0px;margin-left:117px;margin-top:74px;width:215px; height:62px'><img width=215 height=62 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image006.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1041"></span><![endif]><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t32" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="32" o:oned="t" path="m,l21600,21600e" filled="f"> <v:path arrowok="t" fillok="f" o:connecttype="none"/> <o:lock v:ext="edit" shapetype="t"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_s1040" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute; left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:77.5pt;margin-top:46.7pt;width:82.5pt; height:7.45pt;z-index:7' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout;position: absolute;z-index:7;left:0px;margin-left:102px;margin-top:61px;width:114px; height:17px'><img width=114 height=17 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image011.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1040"></span><![endif]><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shapetype id="_x0000_t202" coordsize="21600,21600" o:spt="202" path="m,l,21600r21600,l21600,xe"> <v:stroke joinstyle="miter"/> <v:path gradientshapeok="t" o:connecttype="rect"/> </v:shapetype><v:shape id="_x0000_s1039" type="#_x0000_t202" style='position:absolute; left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:36.9pt;margin-top:51.45pt;width:77.5pt; height:35.85pt;z-index:6;mso-width-relative:margin;mso-height-relative:margin' strokecolor="white"/><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout; position:absolute;z-index:6;left:0px;margin-left:48px;margin-top:68px; width:110px;height:53px'> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0> <tr> <td width=110 height=53 bgcolor=white style='border:.75pt solid white; vertical-align:top;background:white'><![endif]><![if !mso]><span style='position:absolute;mso-ignore:vglayout;left:0pt;z-index:6'> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width="100%"> <tr> <td><![endif]> <div v:shape="_x0000_s1039" style='padding:4.35pt 7.95pt 4.35pt 7.95pt' class=shape> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:8.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Navajo Sandstone sand from the Appalachians<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <![if !mso]></td> </tr> </table> </span><![endif]><![if !mso & !vml]>&nbsp;<![endif]><![if !vml]></td> </tr> </table> </span><![endif]><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1038" type="#_x0000_t202" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left;margin-left:36.5pt; margin-top:18.6pt;width:83.4pt;height:35.55pt;z-index:5;mso-width-relative:margin; mso-height-relative:margin' strokecolor="white"> <v:textbox style='mso-next-textbox:#_x0000_s1038'/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout;position: absolute;z-index:5;left:0px;margin-left:48px;margin-top:24px;width:117px; height:53px'> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0> <tr> <td width=117 height=53 bgcolor=white style='border:.75pt solid white; vertical-align:top;background:white'><![endif]><![if !mso]><span style='position:absolute;mso-ignore:vglayout;left:0pt;z-index:5'> <table cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width="100%"> <tr> <td><![endif]> <div v:shape="_x0000_s1038" style='padding:4.35pt 7.95pt 4.35pt 7.95pt' class=shape> <p class=MsoNormal><span style='font-size:8.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Distinctive sands from northern Wyoming<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> <![if !mso]></td> </tr> </table> </span><![endif]><![if !mso & !vml]>&nbsp;<![endif]><![if !vml]></td> </tr> </table> </span><![endif]><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";mso-bidi-language: AR-SA;mso-no-proof:yes'><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="Picture_x0020_3" o:spid="_x0000_i1026" type="#_x0000_t75" alt="Sand Transported Cross country" style='width:252.75pt;height:2in;visibility:visible;mso-wrap-style:square'> <v:imagedata src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image005.jpg" o:title="Sand Transported Cross country"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><img border=0 width=337 height=192 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image004.jpg" alt="Sand Transported Cross country" v:shapes="Picture_x0020_3"><![endif]></span><span style='font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The sloping remnants of sand  waves in the Coconino Sandstone point to the south, indicating the water that deposited the sand flowed from the north. Another clue is that the Coconino Sandstone thins to zero to the north in Utah, but the Hermit Formation spreads farther into Utah and beyond. So the Coconino s pure quartz sand had to come from a source even farther north, above and beyond the red-brown Hermit. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Grand Canyon has another set of layers with sand that must have come from far away the sandstone beds within the Supai Group strata between the Hermit Formation and the Redwall Limestone. In this case, the sand  wave remnants point to the southeast, so the sand grains had to have been deposited by water flowing from a source in the north and west. However, to the north and west of Grand Canyon we find only Redwall Limestone underneath the Supai Group, so there is no nearby source of quartz sand for these sandstone beds. Thus an incredibly long distance must be postulated for the source of Supai Group sand grains. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Other Sediment Even Transported Across the Continent <o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> A third layer of sandstone higher in the strata sequence gives us a clue. The Navajo Sandstone of southern Utah, best seen in the spectacular mesas and cliffs in and around Zion National Park, is well above the Kaibab Limestone, which forms the rim rock of the Grand Canyon. Like the Grand Canyon sandstones, this sandstone also consists of very pure quartz sand, giving it a distinctly brilliant white color, and it also contains remnants of sand  waves. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Within this sandstone, we find grains of the mineral zircon, which is relatively easy to trace to its source because zircon usually contains radioactive uranium. By  dating these zircon grains, using the uranium-lead (U-Pb) radioactive method, it has been postulated that the sand grains in the Navajo Sandstone came from the Appalachians of Pennsylvania and New York, and from former mountains further north in Canada. If this is true, the sand grains were transported about 1,250 miles (2012 km) right across North America. This  discovery poses somewhat of a dilemma for conventional uniformitarian (slow-and-gradual) geologists, because no known sediment transport system is capable of carrying sand across the entire North American continent during the required millions of years. It must have been water over an area even bigger than the continent. All they can do is postulate that some unknown transcontinental river system must have done the job. But even in their scientific belief system of earth history, it is impossible for such a river to have persisted for millions of years.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Yet the evidence is overwhelming that the water was flowing in one direction. More than half a million measurements have been collected from 15,615 North American localities, recording water current direction indicators throughout the geologic record. The evidence indicates that water moved sediments across the entire continent, from the east and northeast to the west and southwest throughout the so-called Paleozoic. This general pattern continued on up into the Mesozoic, when the Navajo Sandstone was deposited. How could water be flowing across the North American continent consistently for hundreds of millions of years? Absolutely impossible!<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The only logical and viable explanation is the global cataclysmic Genesis Flood. Only the water currents of a global ocean, lasting a few months, could have transported such huge volumes of sediments right across the North American continent to deposit the thick strata sequences which blanket the continent. The geologic record has many examples of sediments that did not come from erosion of local, underlying rocks. Rather, the sediments had to have been transported long distances, in some cases even across continents. This is confirmed by water current direction indicators in these sedimentary layers, which show a consistent unidirectional flow. However, conjectured transcontinental river systems could not have operated like that for hundreds of millions of years. Instead, only catastrophic global flooding of the continents over a few months can explain the huge volumes of sediments transported across the continents.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> In<span style='color:black'> <a href="http://bible.logos.com/passage/nkjv/Genesis%207%E2%80%938" target="_blank"><span style='color:black;text-decoration:none;text-underline:none'>Genesis 7-8</span></a></span> the Bible describes the cataclysmic global Flood in which the waters covered the whole earth, sweeping across entire continents. We would expect to find that these global waters eroded sediments and transported them across whole continents to be deposited in layers covering vast areas. We have now seen that this is exactly what we find across North America, so there is no excuse for claiming there is no evidence of a global flood. The global cataclysmic Genesis Flood actually happened in the earth s history, just as God told us it did. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h1 style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>III.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt'>Evidence of Noah s Flood: No Slow and Gradual Erosion<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In the first four parts, we reviewed Dr. Snelling s evidence for the Flood:<span style='color:black'><o:p></o:p></span></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent style='margin-left:46.5pt;text-indent:-.25in; mso-list:l0 level1 lfo6'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n1/high-dry-sea-creatures"><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>Evidence #1. Fossils of sea creatures high above sea level</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent style='margin-left:46.5pt;text-indent:-.25in; mso-list:l0 level1 lfo6'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n2/world-graveyard"><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>Evidence #2. Rapid burial of plants and animals</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent style='margin-left:46.5pt;text-indent:-.25in; mso-list:l0 level1 lfo6'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n3/transcontinental-rock-layers"><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>Evidence #3. Rapidly deposited sediment layers spread across vast areas</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent style='margin-left:46.5pt;text-indent:-.25in; mso-list:l0 level1 lfo6'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt; mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:Symbol;mso-fareast-font-family:Symbol; mso-bidi-font-family:Symbol'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>·<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v3/n4/sand-transported"><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;color:black;text-decoration: none;text-underline:none'>Evidence #4. Sediment transported long distances</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>On our trips across Utah via Interstate 70 we always enjoy the unique view of the flat-lying stratified sediments just north of where the interstate meets Highways 6 &amp; 191 near Green River, Utah and continues for 90 miles into Colorado. If you have a copy of <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Roadside Geology of Utah</i> or the one for Colorado, you can read about the evolutionary geology of the area and interesting tidbits. These roadside strata, called the Book Cliffs, are sharply or deeply eroded at numerous spots along I-70 via uniformitarian processes. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Interesting geologic features begin back on the western side of the San Rafael Swell, an anticline, where the road travels over many of the same rock formations we see in the area surrounding Grand Canyon roughly 180 miles south as the crow flies: the formations of Navaho Sandstone, Moenkopi, Shinarump, Chinle, Kaibab, Coconino, etc., the last two are actually the topmost Grand Canyon strata. We mention these just to show how widespread these deposits are. Geologists claim the advancing sea deposited the Kaibab and Toroweap atop the terrestrial Coconino, presumably an ancient desert region.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>The first time Anita and I saw the Book Cliffs, we were amazed by the many parallel layers of flat-lying sediments stacked on top of one another that seemed to stretch endlessly. The area north of the roadside view is loaded with canyons, stream beds, and other erosional features. The satellite view provided by Google maps allows us to see the extensive irregular erosion of this area, marring the neighboring Roan Cliffs as well.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>We remembered seeing many layers of similarly flat-lying strata in Grand Canyon, and the one thing that struck us was the seeming lack of erosional features within and between the layers, another feature the Book Cliffs and Grand Canyon share, this despite the modern erosion slashing through the strata in both areas. The current erosion is intense throughout the multi-state region of the Colorado Plateau, but erosion in allegedly ancient times seems to be almost lacking.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Here s how Dr. Snelling put it:<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The dominant view today is that slow and gradual (uniformitarian) processes, similar to the processes we observe in the present, explain the thick, fossil-bearing sedimentary rock layers all over the earth. These slow geologic processes would require hundreds of millions of years to deposit all the successive sediment layers. Furthermore, this popular view holds that slow weathering and erosion gradually wore away the earth s surface to produce its relief features, such as hills and valleys. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> This view has a problem, however. If the fossil-bearing layers took hundreds of millions of years to accumulate, then we would expect to find many examples of weathering and erosion after successive layers were deposited. The boundaries between many sedimentary strata should be broken by lots of topographic relief with weathered surfaces. After all, shouldn t millions of years worth of weathering and erosion follow each deposition? <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> On the other hand, the cataclysmic global Flood described in Genesis 7 8 would lead us to expect something much different. Most of the fossil-bearing layers would have accumulated in just over one year. Under such catastrophic conditions, even if land surfaces were briefly exposed to erosion, such erosion (called sheet erosion) would have been rapid and widespread, leaving behind flat and smooth surfaces. The erosion would not create the localized topographic relief (hills and valleys) we see forming at today s snail s pace. So, if the Genesis Flood caused the fossil-bearing geologic record, then we would only expect evidence of rapid or no erosion at the boundaries between strata.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNormal style='margin-top:.25in;margin-right:0in;margin-bottom:3.75pt; margin-left:0in;line-height:95%;mso-outline-level:3'><b><i style='mso-bidi-font-style: normal'><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:15.0pt;line-height: 95%;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif";color:black'>Examples in Grand Canyon <o:p></o:p></span></i></b></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Grand Canyon in the southwestern United States offers numerous examples of strata boundaries that are consistent with deposition during the Genesis Flood. However, we will focus here on just four, which are typical of all the others. These boundaries appear at the bases of the Tapeats Sandstone, Redwall Limestone, Hermit Formation, and Coconino Sandstone (<i>Figure 1</i> from <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Answers</i> magazine, Oct-Dec 2008).<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Below Tapeats Sandstone <o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The strata below the Tapeats Sandstone has been rapidly eroded and then extensively scraped flat (planed off). We know that this erosion occurred on a large scale because we see its effects from one end of the Grand Canyon to the other. This massive erosion affected many different underlying rock layers granites and metamorphic rocks, and tilted sedimentary strata. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> So what evidence do we find? At the boundaries between some sedimentary layers we find evidence of only rapid erosion. In most other cases, the boundaries are flat, featureless, and knife-edge, with absolutely no evidence of any erosion, which is consistent with no long periods of elapsed time, as would be expected during the global, cataclysmic Genesis Flood.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> There are two evidences that this large-scale erosion was rapid. First, we don t see any evidence of weathering below the boundary. If there were weathering, we would expect to see soils, but we don t. Second, we find boulders and features known as  storm beds in the Tapeats Sandstone above the boundary. Storm beds are sheets of sand with unique internal features produced only by storms, such as hurricanes. Boulders and storm beds aren t deposited slowly. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Below Redwall Limestone <o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1037" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left; margin-left:-234.7pt;margin-top:91.5pt;width:17.75pt;height:.45pt;z-index:4' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout;position: absolute;z-index:4;left:0px;margin-left:-314px;margin-top:117px;width:27px; height:12px'><img width=27 height=12 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image017.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1037"></span><![endif]><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1036" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;left:0; text-align:left;margin-left:-230.05pt;margin-top:76.5pt;width:13.1pt;height:.5pt; z-index:3' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout;position: absolute;z-index:3;left:0px;margin-left:-308px;margin-top:97px;width:21px; height:12px'><img width=21 height=12 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image018.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1036"></span><![endif]><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1035" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;left:0; text-align:left;margin-left:-234.7pt;margin-top:54.05pt;width:17.75pt; height:4.7pt;flip:y;z-index:2' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout;position: absolute;z-index:2;left:0px;margin-left:-314px;margin-top:66px;width:28px; height:13px'><img width=28 height=13 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image019.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1035"></span><![endif]><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1034" type="#_x0000_t32" style='position:absolute;left:0; text-align:left;margin-left:-230.05pt;margin-top:48.6pt;width:13.1pt;height:0; z-index:1' o:connectortype="straight"> <v:stroke endarrow="block"/> </v:shape><![endif]--><![if !vml]><span style='mso-ignore:vglayout;position: absolute;z-index:1;left:0px;margin-left:-308px;margin-top:59px;width:21px; height:12px'><img width=21 height=12 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image020.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1034"></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Below the base of the Redwall Limestone the underlying Muav Limestone has been rapidly eroded in a few localized places to form channels. These channels were later filled with lime sand to form the Temple Butte Limestone. Apart from these rare exceptions, the boundary between the Muav and Redwall Limestones, as well as the boundary between the Temple Butte and Redwall Limestones, are flat and featureless, hallmarks of continuous deposition. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Indeed, in some locations the boundary between the Muav and Redwall Limestones is impossible to find because the Muav Limestone continued to be deposited after the Redwall Limestone began. This feature presents profound problems for uniformitarian geology. The Muav Limestone was supposedly deposited 500 520 million years ago, the Temple Butte Limestone was supposedly deposited about 100 million years later (350 400 million years ago), and then the Redwall Limestone deposited several million years later (330 340 million years ago). Based on the evidence, it is much more logical to believe that these limestones were deposited continuously, without any intervening millions of years. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Below the Hermit Formation <o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Another boundary at Grand Canyon the boundary between the Hermit Formation and the Esplanade Sandstone is often cited as evidence of erosion that occurred over millions of years after sediments had stopped building up. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> There is a problem, however. The evidence indicates that water was still depositing material, even as erosion occurred. In places the Hermit Formation silty shales are intermingled (inter-tongued) with the Esplanade Sandstone, indicating that a continuous flow of water carried both silty mud and quartz sand into place. Thus there were no millions of years between these sedimentary layers. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Below the Coconino Sandstone <o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Finally, the boundary between the Coconino Sandstone and the Hermit Formation is flat, featureless, and knife-edge from one end of the Grand Canyon to the other. There is absolutely no evidence of any erosion on the Hermit Formation before the Coconino Sandstone was deposited. That alone is amazing. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Yet somehow a whole extra layer of sediment was dumped on top of the Hermit Formation before the Coconino Sandstone, without time for erosion. In places in central and eastern Arizona, almost 2,000 feet (610 m) of sandstone, shale, and limestone (the Schnebly Hill Formation) sits on top of the Hermit Formation, supposedly representing millions of years of deposition before the Coconino Sandstone was deposited on top of them. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> But where is the evidence of the supposed millions of years of erosion at this boundary in the Grand Canyon area while this deposition was occurring elsewhere? There is none! So there were no millions of years between the Coconino Sandstone and Hermit Formation, just continuous deposition. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Conclusion <o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The fossil-bearing portion of the geologic record consists of tens of thousands of feet of sedimentary layers, of which about 4,500 feet (1,372 m) are exposed in the walls of Grand Canyon. If this enormous thickness of sediments was deposited over 500 or more million years, as conventionally believed, then some boundaries between layers should show evidence of millions of years of slow erosion, when deposition was not occurring, just as erosion is occurring on some land surfaces today. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> On the other hand, if this enormous thickness of sediments was all deposited in just over a year during the Genesis Flood, then the boundaries between the layers should show evidence of continuous rapid deposition, with only occasional rapid erosion or no erosion at all. And that s exactly what we find, as illustrated by strata boundaries in the Grand Canyon. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The biblical account of the Flood describes the waters sweeping over the continents to cover the whole earth. The waters flowing right around the earth would have catastrophically eroded sediments from some locations, transported them long distances, and then rapidly deposited them. Because the waters flowed  continually (the word used in the Scriptures), erosion, transport, and deposition of sediments would have been continually rapid. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Thus billions of dead plants and animals were rapidly buried and fossilized in sediment layers that rapidly accumulated, with only rapid or no erosion at their boundaries because they were deposited just hours, days, or weeks apart. So the evidence declares that the Genesis Flood actually happened, being a major event in the earth s history, just as God has told us in His eyewitness account. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h1 style='margin-left:.5in;text-indent:-.5in;mso-list:l1 level1 lfo2'><![if !supportLists]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:14.0pt;mso-fareast-font-family:Arial'><span style='mso-list:Ignore'>IV.<span style='font:7.0pt "Times New Roman"'>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp; </span></span></span><![endif]><span style='font-size:18.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 14.0pt'>Evidence of Noah s Flood -- Rock Layers Folded, not Fractured<o:p></o:p></span></h1> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In the last five parts, we ve been reviewing Dr. Andrew Snelling s evidence for the Flood, originally published in issues of <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Answers Magazine</i> from Dec 2007 to Mar 2009<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Plate Tectonics build mountains, bend strata<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>The theory of plate tectonics got off to a rocky start as continental drift. The term  tectonics describes the movement of the earth s crust to form mountains and fold strata. In 1858, Antonio Snider-Pellegrini suggested a great continent had broken apart during the Flood. His idea was ignored by most geologists. In the first half of the 20<sup>th</sup> century, Alfred Wegener argued with Alexander du Toit over the particulars of continental drift. The theory of plate tectonics was finally accepted in the 1960s.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>The fossil-bearing strata on the earth s crust are several miles thick. We don t find every layer at every location around the world. For instance, we know that Grand Canyon is  missing sediments supposedly repre­senting 100 million years of Ordovician and Silurian deposits which are present in other parts of the world.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Uniformitarian geologists believe it took about 570 million years of slow, gradual deposition to produce all the sedimentary layers from the Cambrian to the present, and these layers were deposited discontinuously, as in Grand Canyon. They propose that areas with discontinuities were highlands during those missing geological periods, or were in a regional arid environment, or both, and therefore did not receive much sediment during those time spans.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Creationists, on the other hand, state that these same sediments would have been rapidly generated and deposited by the Genesis Flood. Tectonism during the Flood could also have produced discontinuous deposition, possibly because not all areas of the pre-Flood continent were close enough to the sedimentary sources to receive sufficient sediment to accumulate significant deposits for the missing time spans.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>The concept of Tectonically associated Biological Provinces (TABs) helps explain why this would happen, since John Woodmorappe developed this concept to explain fossil succession. Man and marine creatures would seldom be buried and fossilized together because they don t live in the same environment. The eruptions of the Fountains of the Great Deep would have created huge amounts of sediment from the sea floor, including various organisms, and deposited them first. There would have been rapid, but fitful, rising (and sometimes falling) of the sea level during the Flood because of all the plate tectonism provoked by the Fountains of the Great Deep.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Bending Rock Breaks It, Wet Sediments Fold<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>In the previous installments we saw evidence that the rock layers were all laid down in quick succession. This explains the paucity of erosional features throughout Grand Canyon strata and elsewhere.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>According to uniformitarian geology, in the millions of years it took to produce the rock strata, those layers became hard and brittle. Tectonic forces gradually mounted, forcing the strata to fold slowly. Actually, what would have happened is that these rock layers would have broken and shattered.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>The Viscosity of Rocks<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>As an important aside, I want to give some information about viscosity.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>All materials can flow or move over time. Some, like water, flow very easily. The ease with which a material flows is called its viscosity. Water is not very viscous, although ice is, but the movement of glaciers demonstrates ice s ability to flow. The viscosity of a substance is proportional to its poise value, which is a numerical representation of a material s rigidity.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>A very interesting article about the viscosity of rocks appeared in the <i style='mso-bidi-font-style:normal'>Creation Research Society Quarterly</i>. ( The Age of Lunar Craters CRSQ 20:105-108, 1983) It s one of my favorite articles. The thesis of this article is that all rocks flow, including the rock surrounding lunar craters, which will make the craters fill in given enough time. After becoming an old-earth theistic evolutionist, the author felt he made a major error in the article and now repudiates his previous conclusion concerning the filling of lunar craters by flowage. He told me the strength of the crater wall would resist flow pressure from the surrounding rock, however, I think the wall is flowing too. He says laser measurements don t detect any flow in the craters, but considering the rigidity of the rock, detection of flow would probably take many years.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Limestone, one of the main types of rock formations in Grand Canyon, has a viscosity of 10<sup>21</sup> poise. That means it is very stiff and unyielding. It would fracture before it folded. Using the uniformitarian time scale, the Kaibab Limestone is 250 million years old, and the Kaibab Plateau was uplifted about 70 million years ago. This limits the time for the duration of the uplift, possibly making flow the unlikely mechanism for the strata within the East Kaibab Monocline (see figure next page). If the Kaibab Limestone was nearly 180 million years old by the time of the uplift, it would have had plenty of time to harden completely.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Since limestone has such a high poise value, much higher than granite s viscosity of10<sup>18 </sup>poise, bending it would be nearly impossible. Because limestone is so rigid, it would break before it bent, unless it was bent before it hardened, or if it were bent under high temperature and pressure. The same is true of most sedimentary rocks. Of course, at moderately elevated temperatures found about 3 miles underground, the viscosity would decrease appreciably.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Uniformitarians believe that the East Kaibab Mono­cline strata suffered microfracturing and subsequent annealing (or healing) as the plateau uplifted. In his book, <i style='mso-bidi-font-style: normal'>Earth s Catastrophic Past</i>, p. 597<i style='mso-bidi-font-style: normal'> </i>Snelling says such rocks would metamorphose (physically transform), but  many sedimentary strata have not been so metamorphosed. They appear to have suffered only plastic deformation. Snelling s book is available through ICR. An excellent read for geology students.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>According to the lunar crater article, USGS geologist, Z.F. Danes, determined that in order for lunar craters to persist for billions of years, the poise value of the rock would have had to have a viscosity of almost 10<sup>26</sup> poise, much stiffer than earth rocks, including mantle rock, which has a poise value of 10<sup>22</sup>. Mantle rock flows very well deep in the earth, and according to the theory of plate tectonics, mantle plumes are the cause of plate movement. If moon rocks are no more viscous than limestone, the lifespan of the craters would range from 10<sup>4</sup> to 10<sup>7</sup> years, depending on the actual temperature and poise values. It s hard to envision rocks flowing, especially filling a crater, but if rock can be regarded as a very viscous fluid, it is as sure to happen as the filling of a water crater when a drop of water collides with a body of water.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoNoSpacing><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:10.0pt; font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>The rest of this essay is entirely by Dr. Snelling.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'> Solid Rock Breaks When Bent<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> When solid, hard rock is bent (or folded) it invariably fractures and breaks because it is brittle. Rock will bend only if it is still soft and pliable  plastic like modeling clay or children s Playdough. If such modeling clay is allowed to dry out, it is no longer pliable but hard and brittle, so any attempt to bend it will cause it to break and shatter.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> When water deposits sediments in a layer, some water is left behind, trapped between the sediment grains. Clay particles may also be among the sediment grains. As other sedimentary layers are laid on top of the deposits, the pressure squeezes the sedimentary particles closer together and forces out much of the water. The earth s internal heat may also remove water from the sediment. As the sediment layer dries out, the chemicals that were in the water and between the clay particles convert into a natural cement. This cement transforms the originally soft and wet sediment layer into a hard, brittle rock layer.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> This process, known technically as diagenesis, can be exceedingly rapid. It is known to occur within hours but generally takes days or months, depending on the prevailing conditions. It doesn t take millions of years, even under today s slow-and-gradual geologic conditions.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'> Folding Strata Without Fracturing<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The 4,500-foot sequence of sedimentary layers in the walls of the Grand Canyon stands well above today s sea level. Earth movements in the past pushed up this sedimentary sequence to form the Kaibab Plateau. However, the eastern portion of the sequence (in the eastern Grand Canyon and Marble Canyon areas in northern Arizona) was not pushed up as much and is about 2,500 feet (762 m) lower than the height of the Kaibab Plateau. The boundary between the Kaibab Plateau and the less uplifted eastern canyons is marked by a large step-like fold, called the East Kaibab Monocline. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><!--[if gte vml 1]><v:shape id="_x0000_s1045" type="#_x0000_t75" style='position:absolute;left:0;text-align:left; margin-left:0;margin-top:0;width:240.7pt;height:147.75pt;z-index:9; mso-position-horizontal:left;mso-position-vertical:top; mso-position-vertical-relative:line' o:allowoverlap="f"> <v:imagedata src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image007.wmz" o:title=""/> <w:wrap type="square"/> </v:shape><![if gte mso 9]><o:OLEObject Type="Embed" ProgID="CorelDRAW.Graphic.14" ShapeID="_x0000_s1045" DrawAspect="Content" ObjectID="_1342956574"> </o:OLEObject> <![endif]><![endif]--><![if !vml]><img width=321 height=197 src="Evidence%20number%203_files/image021.gif" align=left hspace=12 border=0 v:shapes="_x0000_s1045"><![endif]><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> It s possible to see these folded sedimentary layers in several side canyons. For example, the folded Tapeats Sandstone can be seen in Carbon Canyon. Notice that these sandstone layers were bent 90° (a right angle), yet the rock was not fractured or broken at the hinge of the fold. Similarly, the folded Muav and Redwall Limestone layers can be seen along nearby Kwagunt Creek. The folding of these limestones did not cause them to fracture and break, either, as would be expected with ancient brittle rocks. The obvious conclusion is that these sandstone and limestone layers were all folded and bent while the sediments were still soft and pliable, very soon after they were deposited.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Herein lies an insurmountable dilemma for uniformitarian geologists. They maintain that the Tapeats Sandstone and Muav Limestone were deposited 500 520 million years ago; the Redwall Limestone, 330 340 million years ago; then the Kaibab Limestone at the top of the sequence, 260 million years ago. Lastly, the Kaibab Plateau was uplifted (about 60 million years ago), causing the folding. That s a time span of about 440 million years between the first deposit and the folding. How could the Tapeats Sandstone and Muav Limestone still be soft and pliable, as though they had just been deposited? Wouldn t they fracture and shatter if folded 440 million years after deposition?<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The conventional explanation is that under the pressure and heat of burial, the hardened sandstone and limestone layers were bent so slowly they behaved as though they were plastic and thus did not break. However, pressure and heat would have caused detectable changes in the minerals of these rocks, tell-tale signs of metamorphism. But such metamorphic minerals or recrystallization due to such plastic behavior<a name="fnMark_1_9_1"></a><a href="http://www.answersingenesis.org/articles/am/v4/n2/folded-not-fractured#fnList_1_9"><span style='mso-bookmark:fnMark_1_9_1'><sup><span style='font-size:7.5pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 6.5pt'>9</span></sup></span><span style='mso-bookmark:fnMark_1_9_1'></span></a><span style='mso-bookmark:fnMark_1_9_1'></span> is not observed in these rocks. The sandstone and limestone in the folds are identical to sedimentary layers elsewhere.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> The only logical conclusion is that the 440-million-year delay between deposition and folding never happened! Instead, the Tapeats-Kaibab strata sequence was laid down in rapid succession early during the year of the global cataclysmic Genesis Flood, followed by uplift of the Kaibab Plateau within the last months of the Flood. This alone explains the folding of the whole strata sequence without appreciable fracturing.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'> Conclusion<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> Uniformitarian geologists claim that tens of thousands of feet of fossiliferous sedimentary layers have been deposited over more than 500 million years. In contrast, the global cataclysmic Flood of Genesis 7-8 leads creation geologists to believe that most of these layers were deposited in just over one year. Thus, during the Flood many different strata would have been laid down in rapid succession.<o:p></o:p></span></p> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'> In the walls of the Grand Canyon, we can see that the whole horizontal sedimentary strata sequence was folded without fracturing, supposedly 440 million years after the Tapeats Sandstone and Muav Limestone were deposited, and 200 million years after the Kaibab Limestone was deposited. The only way to explain how these sandstone and limestone beds could be folded, as though still pliable, is to conclude they were deposited during the Genesis Flood, just months before they were folded. <o:p></o:p></span></p> <h2><span style='font-size:16.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size:12.0pt'>Final Word<o:p></o:p></span></h2> <p class=MsoBodyTextFirstIndent><span style='font-size:14.0pt;mso-bidi-font-size: 12.0pt;font-family:"Arial","sans-serif"'>Thanks to Dr. Snelling s articles, we now have a great set of tools to examine and refute evolutionary geologists claims. He recently published a two-volume set, <i style='mso-bidi-font-style: normal'>Earth s Catastrophic Past</i>, which covers a wide range of topics germane to geology, creation, and the Flood. This terrific set is available through the Institute for Creation Research and online bookstores.<o:p></o:p></span></p> </div> </body> </html>